The majority of the Phrygian monuments presented here are rock structures built for religious and cultic purposes. They were likely created to honor deities, especially the Phrygian mother goddess Matar, and to present votive offerings. Most of these monuments face eastward and can be categorized into three main groups: façades, niches, and altars/idols.

Façades: Typically carved on leveled surfaces of steep rocks, façades replicate the front faces of Phrygian houses (megarons), which were predominantly wooden structures. They symbolize the temple dedicated to goddesses, mainly Matar, showcasing pitched roofs and rectangular plans. The lower part of the façade often features a niche that resembles an entrance door and may contain a statue or relief of a goddess. Depending on their size, façades can be classified as large or small.
Niches: These are similar to the niches found in façades but consist solely of a niche without any surrounding structure. They appear as shallow, oval, or rectangular cavities carved into steep rock faces, usually at accessible heights. Most niches have a simple frame carved in low relief.
Altars and Idols: These three-dimensional cult structures, carved from the bedrock, served worship and sacrificial purposes. Generally located on the tops or edges of accessible rock formations, they feature low reliefs of one or two (rarely three) idols, characterized by rounded heads and rectangular bodies, symbolizing gods or goddesses. Some altars have a ‘seat’-shaped top instead of idols, referred to as ‘stylized idols’ or ‘thrones’ by various researchers. Many include steps leading to the idol(s) or provide a flat platform instead. It is believed that all these structures were utilized for similar ritualistic or cultic purposes.
Rock-Cut Tombs: The Phrygians constructed tumuli as monumental burial sites and also created chamber tombs carved into rock. A typical Phrygian rock-cut tomb mirrors the shape of a wooden house, complete with pitched roofs. Emilie Haspels classified these tombs into two groups: early and late periods. Group I tombs are small and simple, possibly containing rock-carved beds, dating back to the 8th century BCE. In contrast, Group II tombs are room-sized, showcasing meticulous craftsmanship with ornamental stone beds (klinai) and reliefs on their surfaces, dating to the 6th century BCE (while Phrygia was under Lydian rule but in prosperity). Almost all of the Phrygian rock tombs are located in the Phrygian Highlands. The vast majority of the hundreds of rock tombs that have survived to the present day were reused in the later Hellenistic and Roman periods. Only a few monumental examples are included in these pages.
Fortresses (Kales): According to general literature, the term ‘kale’ (Turkish for ‘fortress’) refers to Phrygian kales situated on high rocky hills. Phrygian kales in the highlands region are designed to oversee the entrances and surroundings of the valleys where the settlements are located. The steep rocks surrounding them form natural defensive structures. These natural structures are strengthened with stone walls erected in between gaps among the rocks. Many of these kales continued to serve during the Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine periods, sometimes for different purposes.
Phrygian Inscriptions: Phrygian is an Indo-European language. It is most closely related to the Archaic Greek. The Phrygian script is basically the same as the Greek alphabet; there are a few additional Phrygian characters. According to the dating of the inscriptions, the Phrygian language is at least as old as Greek. The inscriptions are classified as old (Paleo-Phrygian) and new (Neo-Phrygian). Old Phrygian inscriptions date from the 8th to 3rd centuries BCE. New Phrygian inscriptions were written in the Greek alphabet belonging to the Roman period and used from the 1st to 3rd centuries CE. Most inscriptions are written sinistroverse (from right to left), but there are also a considerable number of dextroverse (from left to right) and boustrophedon (starting either from left or right but changing direction in alternating lines) inscriptions. Although Phrygian can be read phonetically, it is not fully deciphered yet. The Phrygians left very little written work compared to their contemporaries. These are mostly votive inscriptions found on religious structures such as rock façades, niches, and altars. In addition, there are usually one-word graffiti written on ceramic or metal vessels and thought to be related to daily life.
Dating: Due to limited evidence, dating Phrygian rock monuments presents challenges. Findings allow for a rough division of Phrygian history into a few periods: Early Phrygian (950-800 BCE), Middle Phrygian I (800-600 BCE), Middle Phrygian II (600-550 BCE), and Late Phrygian (550-330 BCE). Most dates referenced here are based on Berndt-Ersöz’s (2006) proposals.
References:
Berndt-Ersöz, S. 2006. Phrygian Rock – Cult Shrines. Structure, Function and Cult Practice, Leiden.
Brixhe, C. & M. Lejeune. 1984. Corpus des inscriptions paléo-phrygiennes, Paris.
Haspels, C. H. E. 1971 The Highlands of Phrygia. Sites and monuments, Princeton.
Tüfekçi-Sivas, T. 1999 Eskişehir-Afyonkarahisar- Kütahya İl Sınırları İçindeki Phryg Kaya Anıtları, Anadolu Üniversitesi Yayınları No:1156, Eskişehir.